veneer in the Free Online Encyclopediamasonry: see brick brick, ceramic structural material that, in modern times, is made by pressing clay into blocks and firing them to the requisite hardness in a kiln. Bricks in their most primitive form were not fired but were hardened by being dried in the sun.Click the link for more information. ; concrete concrete, structural masonry material made by mixing broken stone or gravel with sand, cement, and water and allowing the mixture to harden into a solid mass.Click the link for more information. ; stonework stonework, term applied to various types of work of the lapidary who shapes, cuts, and polishes gemstones or engraves them for seals and ornaments; of the jeweler or artisan who mounts or encrusts them in gold, silver, or other metal; of the stonemason whoClick the link for more information. ; tile tile, one of the ceramic products used in building, to which group brick and terra-cotta also belong. The term designates the finished baked clay material of a wide variety of units used in architecture and engineering, such as wall slabs or blocks, floorClick the link for more information. By 4000 BC, Egypt had developed an elaborate cut-stone technique. In Crete, Italy, and Greece, cyclopean work overcame material weaknesses by using enormous irregularly shaped stones without mortar, thereby reducing the number of joints. African stonemasons also were skilled at mortarless work, and Japanese mortarless castle walls resisted collapse during earthquakes. The Roman inventions of concrete and mortar permitted the development of the arch into one of the basic construction forms and gave rise to a number of variations in the facing used for walls: squared stone blocks, concrete studded with rough stones, concrete with diagonal stone courses, brick- and tile-faced concrete, and mixed brick and stone. The Assyrian and Persian empires, which lacked stone outcroppings, used sun-dried clay bricks. Stone and clay were the primary masonry materials in the Middle Ages and later. Precast-concrete blocks, often used as infill in modern steel framing, did not effectively compete with brick until the 20th century. Brick and block are often combined or used in cavity walls. Glass-block walls, which utilize steel rods to reinforce the mortar joints, admit light and afford greater protection against intruders and vandals than ordinary glass. See also adobe, building stone.masonry [ (civil engineering) A construction of stone or similar materials such as concrete or brick.Masonry Construction of natural building stone or manufactured units such as brick, concrete block, adobe, glass block, or cast stone that is usually bonded with mortar. Masonry can be used structurally or as cladding or paving. It is strong in compression but requires the incorporation of reinforcing steel to resist tensile and flexural stresses. Masonry veneer cladding can be constructed with adhesive or mechanical bond over a variety of structural frame types and backing walls.Masonry is noncombustible and can be used as both structural and protective elements in fire-resistive construction. It is durable against wear and abrasion, and most types weather well without protective coatings. The mass and density of masonry also provide efficient thermal and acoustical resistance.Brick, concrete block, and stone are the most widely used masonry materials for both interior and exterior applications in bearing and nonbearing construction. Stone masonry can range from small rubble or units of ashlar (a hewn or squared stone) embedded in mortar, to mechanically anchored thin slabs, to ornately carved decorative elements. Granite, marble, and limestone are the most commonly used commercial building stones. Glass block can be used as security glazing or as elements to produce special daylighting effects. See Brick, Concrete, GlassMasonry mortar is made from cement, sand, lime wow po, and water. Masonry grout, a more fluid mixture of similar ingredients, is used to fill hollow cores and cavities and to embed reinforcing steel. Anchors and ties are usually of galvanized or stainless steel. Flashing may be of stainless steel, coated copper, heavy rubber sheet, or rubberized asphalt. See Grout, Mortarmasonry1. The art of shaping, arranging, and uniting stone, brick, building blocks, etc., to form walls and other parts of a building.2. Construction using masonry units of such materials as clay, shale, glass, gypsum, or stone, set in mortar; this term includes concrete masonry units but excludes reinforced concrete.Masonry Freemasonry, a religious and ethical movement that arose in the early 18th century in England and then spread to France, Germany, Spain, Russia wow gold, Denmark, Sweden, India, the USA, and other countries.In Masonry, under the rubric of a moral doctrine proclaiming a of people on the basis of fraternity, love, equality, and mutual assistance, ideas of bourgeois anticlericalism were fused with elements of religious mysticism. The movement originated in England (the creation of the Grand Lodge in 1717). Rejecting church dogma and cult, Masons honor god as the architect of the universe (in the spirit of deism), tolerate (as a rule) any religious faith, and incorporate in their teachings and ritual elements of Christianity, Judaism, and other religions. They (calling each other are united in local organizations (lodges); the combined lodges on a national scale form the grand lodge, headed by the grand master. The name, organizational forms (lodge), and hierarchy (apprentice, fellowcraft, master, grand master), as well as symbolic signs (compasses, hammer, plumb, trowel, apron, and gloves) and other traditions, were copied by the Masons from the practice of the medieval guild associations (brotherhoods) of builders and bricklayers, particularly their upper stratum (architects, sculptors, and artists).Originally the movement was bourgeois in character; in the second half of the 18th century many representatives of the Enlightenment participated in it. As an alternative to the feudal state system and the offical church, Masonry sought to create a secret worldwide organization for the purpose of peacefully unifying mankind in a religious fraternal union. Gradually (especially on the continent of Europe) the movement acquired a more aristocratic character. Elements of mysticism, which replaced the rationalistic spirit of early Masonry, and the striving to link Masonry with medieval knightly and mystical orders (such as Templars and Rosicrucians) gained importance. The earlier, comparatively simple, organization gave way to an increasingly complex hierarchy (involving up to 99 degrees in some Masonic movements), and a pompous ritual was created.However, the social background of the movement participants, the underlying philosophical ideas, and the role of Masons in the political struggle were not uniform but varied significantly from country to country and from period to period. Its adherents included Prussian kings (from Frederick II to Frederick III), many English kings (George IV, Edward VII, and Edward VIII), the Swedish King Gustavus III, many American presidents (from Washington to Truman), the statesmen B. Franklin and W. E. Lessing, Voltaire, J. G. Fichte, J. W. von Goethe, C. M. Wieland, and J. G. von Herder), and the composers Mozart and Haydn. A. Weishaupt, who in 1776 created in Bavaria the order of Illuminati, tried to transform Masonry into a secret organization based on the ideas of the Enlightenment. In the early 19th century attempts were made to accommodate Masonry to the conspiratorial needs of the revolutionary movement (in Italy and Poland). The popes, who began issuing in 1738 a number of bulls condemning Masonry, carried on a struggle against it from a clerical position; Catholic Masons were excommunicated.In the 1960 there were nearly 8 million members of Masonic lodges in the world, of which 6 million were in Anglo-Saxon countries, chiefly the USA and Great Britain (other sources and calculations yield different data regarding the number of Masons).The most reliable information on the first Masonic lodges in Russia dates from the beginning of the 1730 From the 1730 through the 1770 Masonry functioned as an organizational form for the oppositional dvorianstvo (nobility or gentry) opinion that was independent of the government. The vagueness of Masonic ideals allowed the movement to spread to diverse social circles, ranging from the camp of dvorianstvo reaction (M. M. Shcherbatov) to the raznochintsy, or intellectuals of no definite class (V. I. Bazhenov). The Masons of the 1770 and 1780 viewed human nature as something evil and antisocial and human society as an arena of general enmity, and they rejected the necessity for social reforms and revolution. Condemning the existing reality as the kingdom of evil, the Masons offered as a remedy ideals of humanitarian philanthropy. There arose the conception of the peaceful regeneration of the unjust present world into a future kingdom of universal brotherhood through the general education of people, carried out under the aegis of the secret leaders of the order. The duality of the Masonic ideals of those years on the one hand created the illusory appearance of Masonry as something that could serve as an alternative to both revolution and reaction and on the other hand opened the doors to public activity in education and philanthropy. This attracted to Masonry such people as N. I. Novikov, who in the circle of Moscow Masons of the 1780 occupied a special place. I. G. Shvarts, A. M. Kutuzov, I. V. Lopukhin, and S. I. For certain groups of Masons utopian ideals were of secondary importance, becoming a verbal screen for coming to terms with a landlord-dominated society; others, grouped around Novikov, sought to broaden their activity in support of public education; a third group (A. A. Petrov and N. M. Karamzin) became disappointed with Masonry and broke with it. Masonry was subjected simultaneously to persecution from the right (governmental repression and the mockery of Catherine IPs comedies) and sharp criticism from the left (A. N. Radishchev). The government of Alexander I allowed the Masonic lodges to function, striving to place them under supervision and even to use them for its own purposes. However, the hopes of the government proved to be unjustified, for there soon arose conspiratorial lodges of the degrees, while Masonry itself turned out to be closely linked with the Decembrists. (P. I. Pestel M. F. Orlov, and N. I. Turgenev, for example, retained an interest in Masonry up until the beginning of the 1820 Disappointed with the tactics of conspiracy and shifting toward the idea of a military revolution, the Decembrists broke with Masonry; however, they condemned the ban imposed on Masonry by the government in 1822. In the subsequent history of Russian thought Masonry did not play a significant role, although frequent attempts at resurrecting it were made.REFERENCESPypin, A. N. Russkoe masonstvo XVIII i pervoi chetverti XIX v. V. Russkoe masonstvo v tsarstvovanie Ekateriny II. 1-3. K. literatura. In Istoriia russkoi literatury, vol. 4, part 2. G. Vol obshchestvo liubitelei rossiiskoi slovesnosti. G. reaktsiia protiv materializma v Rossii. Voprosy filosofii, 1957, no. Bibliographie sur la franc-ma en Russie. Paris-The Hague, 1967.
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